依筆者拙見,世界歷史從公元前500年到公元1500年的整個時段屬於一種膨脹的「中世紀」,夾在文明形成的基本階段與1500年後西方開始佔據支配地位之間。這種分期與傳統的世界歷史分期背道而馳,傳統分期把這裡放在同一個階段的歷史以大約公元400年為界,分別劃分到古典和中世紀兩個階段。然而,傳統的年代順序遇到世界其他地區的歷史時,就顯得非常尷尬,因此,最好的方法似乎是只能按地區列舉名稱,而不要按照任何年代順序。
歐洲。大多數古典作品已經被翻譯成英語並且收在洛布古典叢書裡了,與原著的希臘語和拉丁語逐頁對照。此外,更重要的作家還有其他譯本,而且常常由於我缺乏足夠的知識而無法推薦任何作家的特定版本,如埃斯庫羅斯、索福克勒斯、阿里斯托芬、希羅多德、修昔底德、普魯塔克、李維、塔西佗、柏拉圖、亞里士多德、西塞羅和其他同樣持續受歡迎的作家等。但是,任何好奇的學生都將被要求盡快熟悉這些作家,因為他們是西方文明的主要源泉之一。
在現代學者中,選擇就更顯得武斷而困難了。兩部優秀的標準教材是:J.B.Bury,History of Greece to the Death of Alexander the Great,4th ed.(London,1975);和Max Cary,History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine the Great,2nd ed.(London,1954)。Gisela M.A.Richter,Sculpture and Sculptors of the Greeks,rev.ed.(New York,1950)是另一部標準的權威著作;Moses Hadas,History of Greek Literature(New York,1950)對他的主題進行了優雅的概述。關於經濟史,參見F.M.Heichelheim,Ancient Economic History,3 vols.(New York,1958);M.I.Rostovtseff,The Social and Economic History of the Hellenistic World,3 vols.(Oxford,1941);同一作者的更加充滿激情的Social and Economic History of Roman Empire,revised by P.M.Fraser 2nd ed.,2 vols.(Oxford,1957);Tenny Frank et al.,eds.,An Economic Survey of Ancient Rome,5 vols.(Baltimore,1933~40);A.H.M.Jones,The Greek City:From Alexander to Justinian(Oxford,1940);K.D.White,Roman Farming(Ithaca,N.Y.,1970);M.I.Finley,The Ancient Economy(Berkeley,1973);和Ernst Badian,Publicians and Sinners:Private Enterprise in the Service of the Roman Republic(Ithaca,N.Y.,1972)。關於軍事和政治事件的特定方面,下列著作特別有趣:A.R.Burn,Persia and the Greeks:The Defence of the West(New York,1962);H.W.Parke,Greek Mercenry Soldiers(Oxford,1933);A.H.M.Jones,Athenian Democracy(Oxford,1957);Sir Ronald Syme,The Roman Revolution(Oxford,1939);J.R.Hamilton,Alexander the Great(London,1973);F.E.Peters,The Harvest of Hellenism:A History of the Near East from Alexander the Great to the Triumph of Christianity(New York,1970);Ernst Badian,Roman Imperialism in the Late Republic(Oxford,1968);Fergus Millar,The Emperor in the Roman World,31 B.C.~A.D.337(Ithaca,N.Y.,1977);Ramsey Macmullen,Roman Social Relations,50 B.C.~A.D.284(New Haven,1974)。還有其他三部著作可以在這裡推薦:Marshall Clagett,Greek Science in Antiquity(New York,1956);W.W.Tarn and G.T.Griffith,Hellenistic Civilization,3rded.(London,1952);和Georges Dumezil,Archaic Roman Religion(Chicago,1970)。
早期基督教本身就是一個主題。古典學家的兩部傑出著作是:C.N.Cochrane,Christianity and Classical Culture(New York,1944);和Arnaldo Momigliano,ed.,The Conflict between Paganism and Christianity in the Fourth Century(Oxford,1963)。William A.Chaney,The Cult of Kingship in Anglo-Saxon England:The Transition from Paganism to Christianity(Berkeley,1970)對一個重要的過渡時期的連續性和斷裂性進行了論述。對早期基督教總體論述的優秀著作有:Kenneth Scott Latourette,A History of the Expansion of Christianitiy I:The First Five Centuries(New York,1937);Robert M.Grant,Historical Introduction to the New Testament(New York,1963);和Rudolf Karl Bultmann,Primitive Christianity in Its Comtemporary Setting(London,1956)。有趣的更專門性主題如下:A.D.Nock,Conversion,The Old and the New in Religion from Alexander the Great to Augustine of Hippo(London,1933);J.M.Allegro,The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Origins of Christianity(New York,1957);Jean Doresse,Secret Books of the Egyptian Gnostics(New York,1960);和Peter Brown,Augustine of Hippo(Berkeley,1967)。Salo W.Baron,A Social and Religious History of the Jews,2nd ed.,8 vols.(New York,1952~58),是研究早期基督教非常有用的配套著作。
中世紀史學家一直將基督教劃分為拉丁基督教和希臘基督教,斯拉夫歐洲常常成為第三個組成部分。同樣,與伊斯蘭教的關係被忽略或者與總體描述分離開來加以對待。結果是強調了,也許多於實際理由,中世紀歐洲二者之間關係的區分,更別說整個歐亞大陸。Hugh Trevor-Roper,The Rise of Christian Europe(London,1965);Gustave E.von Grunebaum,Medieval Islam:A Study in Cultural Orientation,2nd ed.(Chicago,1955);和Robert S.Lopez,The Birth of Europe(New York,1967);超越了這種狹隘視野;如Lynn White Jr.,Medieval Technology and Social Change(Oxford,1962)。
近來關於中世紀經濟史的著作圍繞著亨利·皮朗在Mohammed and Charlgemagne(New York,1955)提出、在他的Economic and Social History of Medieval Europe(New York,197)一書中確立的「皮朗假設」而展開。The Cambridge Economic History of Europe,3 vols.(Cambridge,1941~63)反映了專家的一致意見;C.S.and C.S.L.Orwin,The Open Fields,2nd ed.(Oxford,1954)把農業的實際經驗用於闡述爭議眾多的莊園土地類型。近來由傑出學者撰寫的綜合性著作包括:M.M.Postan,The Medieval Economy and Society:An Economic History of Britain,1100~1500(Berkeley,1972),和Robert S.Lopez,The Commercial Revolution of the Middle Ages (Englewood Cliffs,N.J.,1971)。
在政治事件方面,接受一份比大多數著作更有趣味更重要的書目似乎是最好的辦法;Marc Bloch,Feudal Society(Chicago,1961);Carl Stephenson,Medieval Feudalism(Ithaca,N.Y.,1942);Sir Steven Runciman,A History of the Crusades,3 vols.(Cambridge,1951~54);Charles Homer Haskins,The Normans in European History (Boston,1915);Geoffrey Barraclough,The Origins of Modern Germany,2nd ed.(Oxford,1947);和P.H.Sawyer,The Age of Vikings(New York,1962)。
關於文化史,基於同樣武斷原則建議書目如下:R.W.Southern,The Making of the Middle Ages(New Haven,1953);Christopher Dawson,The Making of Europe(London,1932);John Huizinga,The Waning of the Middle Ages(London,1924);L.J.Daley,The Medieval University(New York,1961);Charles Homer Haskins,The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century(Cambridge,Mass.,1927);C.H.McIlwain,The Growth of Political Thought in the West(New York,1932);David Knowles,The Evolution of Medieval Thought(London,1962);Ernst Kitzinger,Early Medieval Art in the British Museum,2nd ed.(London,1955);Erwin Panofsky,Gothic Architecture and Scholasticism(Latrobe,Pa.,1951);Paul Oskar Kristeller,Renaissance Thought:The Classic,Scholastic and Humanist Strains,rev.ed.,2 vols.(New York,1961);Ernst Cassirer et al.eds.,The Renaissance Philosophy of Man(Chicago,1948)。David Talbot Rice,ed.,The Dawn of European Civilization(London,1965)是一部插圖精美的介紹歐洲和近東藝術第一個千年紀的著作。兩部總論性的著作追溯了歐洲的重要主題:Clarence Glacken,Traces on the Rhodian Shore(Berkeley,1967),討論了歐洲關於自然的觀念,和Herschel Baker,The Dignity of Man(Cambridge,Mass.,1947,新書名,The Image of Man,New York,1961)。
關於東歐的英語著作較少,但是下列著作值得推薦:Archibald R.Lewis,Naval Power and Trade in the Mediterranean,A.D.500~1000(Princeton,1951);Sir Steven Runciman,Byzantine Civilization(London,1933);William H.McNeill,Venice:The Hinge of Europe,1081~1797(Chicago,1974);Norman H.Baynes and H.St.L.B.Moss,eds.,Byzantium(Oxford,1961);Peter Charanis,Studies on the Demography of the Byzantine Empire:Collected Studies(London,1972);O.M.Dalton, East Christian Art:A Survey of the Monuments(Oxford,1925);N.P.Kondakov,The Russian Icon(Oxford,1927);George Vernadsky,A History of Russia,5 vols.(New Haven,1943),和Jerome Blum,Lord and Peasant in Russia(Princeton,1961)。
伊斯蘭王國。這是一個靈活的詞語,因為伊斯蘭教在誕生後的1000年裡一直使人皈依,並擴張領土基礎,事實上今天仍然如此。此外,在這個總標題下考察一下帕提亞和薩珊帝國也很方便,因為在許多方面,它們是阿拔斯王朝哈里發的先驅。總體說來,對伊朗的研究很少。兩部簡明的概論著作是:Richard N.Frye,Heritage of Persia(Cleveland,1963),和Roman Ghirshman,Iran from the Earliest Times to the IslamicConquest(Penguin,1961)。關於波斯和薩珊時期,參見:Neilson C.Debevoise,A Political History of Parthian(Chicago,1938);對於通法語的讀者來說,可以參考Arthur Christensen, LIran sous les Sassanides, 2nd ed.(Copenhagen,1944);Roman Chirshman,Persian Art,The Parthian and Sassanian Dynasties(New York,1962);和Arthur Upham Pope and Phyllis Ackerman,eds.,A Survey of Persian Art,7 vols.(London and New York,1938~39)都是非常優秀的。關於宗教史,F.C.Burkitt,The Religion of the Manichees(Cambridge,1925)和其他兩部著作:Robert Charles Zaehner,The Dawn and Twlight of Zoroastrianism(New York,1961),和Zurvan:A Zoroastrian Dilemma(Oxford,1955)也方便易得。
在眾多概述伊斯蘭教的著作中,下列著作尤為出色:H.A.R.Gibb,Mohammedanism:A Historical Survey,2nd ed.(London,1953);Bernard Lewis,The Arabs in History(London and New York,1950);Marshall G.S.Hodgson,The Venture of Islam:Conscience and History in a World Civilization,3 vols.(Chicago,1974);Gustave E.von Grunebaum,Medieval Islam:A Study in Cultural Orientation,2nd ed.(Chicago,1955);T.W.Arnold,The Caliphate(Oxford,1924);T.W.Arnold,The Preaching of Islam,2nd ed.(London,1913)。關於穆罕默德的生平,Tor Andrae,Mohammed:The Man and His Faith(New York,1956),W.Montgomery Watt,Muhammad at Merca(Oxford,1953)和W.Montgomery Watt,Muhammad at Medina(Oxford,1956)是非常優秀的著作。《古蘭經》有多種譯本存在;似乎沒有一部英語版本達到了原著的文學功力,我無法確定最佳譯本。Eric Schroeder,Muhammads People(Freeport,Me.,1955)是阿拉伯特別是伊斯蘭教之前的詩歌的大雜燴譯本。William Polk,The Golden Ode(Chicago,1974)翻譯了前伊斯蘭教阿拉伯的重要著作,並且把它作為阿拉伯社會的一種介紹而加以討論。完全不同風格的是Ibn Khaldun,The Muquaddimah:An Introduction to History,tr.Franz Rosenthal,3 vols.(New York,1958)。W.Montgomer Watt,tr.,The Faith and Practice of Al-Ghazali(London and New York,1953),是一位著名的穆斯林神學家的自傳,提供了洞悉穆斯林文明的第三隻眼。
關於蘇菲運動給伊斯蘭教帶來的重大變化,A.J.Arberry,Suffism:An Account of the Mystics of Islam(London,1950)和Reynold Alleyne Nicholson,Studies in Islamic Mysticism(Cambridge,1921)值得推薦。Edward G.Browne, A Literary History of Persia,4 vols.(London and Cambridge,1902~1924),是名副其實的經典;T.W.Arnold, Painting in Islam(Oxford,1928)和Richard Ettinghausen,Arab Painting(Geneva,1926)都是有價值的著作。
以下著作論述更專門的主題:George Fadlo Hourani,Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in Ancient and Early Medieval Times(Princeton,1951);Andrew S.Ehrenkreutz,Saladin,(Albany,N.Y.,1927);W.Barthold,Turkestan Down to the Mongol Invasion,2nd ed.(London,1928);Paul Wittek,The Rise of the Ottoman Empire(London,1938);Halil Inalcik,The Ottoman Empire:The Classical Age,1300~1600(New York,1973);Franz Babinger,Mahmet the Conqueror and His Time(Princeton,1977);J.K.Birge,The Bektashi Order of Dervishes(Hartford,1937);和Marshall G.S.Hodgson,The Order of Assasins(The Hague,1955)。
中亞和草原地區。歐亞大陸草原地區通常被當作一個整體。Rene Grousset,The Empire of the Steppes(trans.New Brunswick,1970)是少數試圖將東西方歷史事件融為一體的著作之一。William M.Mcgovern,The Early Empire of Central Asia(Chapel Hill,1939)和Owen Lattimore,The Inner Asian Frontier of China(New York,1940),論述了歐亞草原的東部。W.W.Tarn,The Greeks in Bactria and India,2nd ed.(Cambridge,1951),A.K.Narain,The Indo-Greeks(Oxford,1957),論述了中亞歷史上最動盪的一個時期。據我所知,沒有類似的論述貴霜帝國的著作,也沒有論述維吾爾時代傳播到整個中亞的薩珊帝國外圍的滿意著作。Sir Aurel Stein,On Ancient Central Asia Tracks(London,1933)只記錄了他的發現,但沒有把他的記錄編寫成歷史。
歷史學家對歐亞草原西部的論述則要好得多。M.I.Rostovtseff,Iranians and Greeks in South Russia(Oxford,1922)和Tamara Talbot Rice,The Scythians(London,1957)在第一部分進一步閱讀書目中已經提及。Mortimer Wheeler,Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers(New York,1955);E.A.Thompson,A History of Attila and the Huns(Oxford,1948);Otto Maenchen-Helfen,The World of the Huns(Berkeley,1973);和D.M.Dunlop,The History of the Jewish Khazars(Princeton,1954)不僅非常完滿地論述了歐亞草原歷史上的每個重要階段,並論述了它與歐洲的關係。R.A.Stein,Tibetan Civilization(trans.Stanford,1972),是對這個主題的標準論述。關於蒙古,以下兩部著作尤為出色:H.Desmond Martin,The Rise of Chings Khan and His Conquest of North China,ed.Elianor Lattimore(Baltimore,1950);和Christopher Dawson,ed.,The Mongol Mission(London and New York,1955)。Michael Prawdin(pseud.For Michael Charol),The Mongol Empire:Its Rise and Legacy(London,1940),是一部可讀性強但缺乏事實證明的著作。
印度和東南亞。A.L.Basham,The Wonder That Was India,rev.ed.(New York,1963),是對印度文明最好的簡介。近年的概論是Stanley Wolpert,A New History of India(New York,1977)。K.A.Nilakanta Sastri,A History of South India from Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar, 3rded.(Madras,1966),和E.H.Warmington,Commerce between the Roman Empire and India(Cambridge,1928),為地中海與印度洋世界互動關係提供了有趣的數據。
關於印度思想和文學,標準的著作是:Surendranath Dasgupta,A History of Indian Philosophy,5 vols.(Cambridge,1932~1955);A.B.Keith,A History of Sanskrit Literature(London,1928);和A.B.Keith,The Sanskrit Drama in Its Origin,Development,Theory,and Practice(Oxford,1924)。印度藝術被下列著作很好地論述了:Heinrich Zimmer and Joseph Campbell,The Art of India Asia,2 vols.(New York,1955);Benjamin Rowland,The Art and Architecture of India(Penguin,1953);和Calambur Sivaramamurti,The Art of India(New York,1977)。在可以得到的印度文學譯本中,V.R.R.Dikshitar,ed.and tr.,The Lay of the Anklet(Silappadikāram)(Oxford,1939);Johannes A.B.van Buitenen,Tales of Ancient India(Chicago,1959);Franklin Edgerton,ed.and tr.,The Bhagavad Gita,translated and interpreted(Harvard Oriental Series,Cambridge,Mass.,1944);和N.A.Nikam and Richard P.McKeon,eds.and trs.,The Edicts of Ashoka(Chicago,1958)都是特別有趣的。Johannes van Buitenen的重要翻譯多卷本Mahabharata(Chicago,1973~)在第一部分進一步閱讀書目說明中已經提及。兩部傑出的著作對印度宗教提供了很好的介紹:Robert C.Zaehner,Hinduism(Oxford,1966)和Mircea Eliade,Yoga:Immorality and Freedom,2nd ed.rev.(Princeton,1969)。
東南亞歷史可參閱以下著作:D.G.E.Hall,A History of Southeast Asia(New York,1955);John F.Cady,Southeast Asia:Its Historical Development(New York,1964);H.G.Quaritch Wales,The Making of Greater India:A Study in Southeast Asian Culture Change(London,1950);J.C.van Leur,Indonesian Trade and Society(The Hague,1955);B.H.M.Vlekke,Nusantara:A History of the East Indian Archipelago(Cambridge,Mass.,1943);和G.Coedes,The Indianized State of Southeast Asia,trans.(Honolulu,1968)。
遠東。L.C.Goodrich,A Short History of the Chinese People,3rded.(New York,1959)和Charles O.Hucker,Chinas Imperial Past(Stanford,1975)是很好的中國通史著作。George B.Sansom, Japan:A Short Cultural History (New York,1962)和John Hall,Japan:From Prehistory to Modern Times(New York,1970)也是很好的日本通史著作。關於朝鮮,M.Frederick Nelson,Korea and the Old Orders in Eastern Asia(Boston,Rouge,1945);Homer B.Hulbert,The History of Korea,rev.ed.by C.M.Weems,2 vols.(Hillary,N.Y.,n.d.;first published,Seoul,1905);和Woo-Kuen Han,The History of Korea(Seoul,1970)可以參閱。E.O.Reischauer,John K.Fairbank,and Albert Craig,East Asia:Tradition and Transformation(Boston,1973)從整體上論述遠東歷史。
中國漫長的政治和社會發展的特定主題由以下著作所論述:Derk Bodde,Chinas First Unifier:A Study of the Chin Dynasty as Seen in the Life of Li Ssu(Leiden,1938);Michael Loewe,Crisis and Conflict in Han China(London,1974);Arthur F.Wright,Buddhism in Chinese History(Stanford,1959);Kenneth Chen,Buddhism in China:An Historical Survey(Princeton,1964);Arthur Wright and Denis Twitchett,Perspectives on the Tang(New Haven,1973);Edwin G.Pulleyblank,The Background of the Rebellion of An Lu-shan(London,1955);Edwin A.Kracke,Jr.,Civil Service in Early Sung China,960~1067(Cambridge,Mass.,1953);Shiba Yoshinobu,Commerce and Society in Sung China,trans.(Ann Arbor,1970);James T.C.Liu,Reform in Sung China:Wang An-shih and His New Policies(Cambridge,Mass.,1959);Charles O.Hucker,ed.,Chinese Government in Ming Times(New York,1969);和J.J.L.Duyvendak,Chinas Discovery of Africa(London,1949)。Raymond Dawson,ed.,The Legacy of China(Oxford,1964)包括了中國傳統文明多方面的簡要介紹,而且由該領域的一流權威學者所撰寫。
中國的藝術和思想可以從下列著作中得到幫助:Osvald Siren,Chinese Painting:Leading Masters and Principles,7 vols.(New York,1956~1958);Lawrence Sickman and Alexander Soper,The Art and Architecture of China(Pinguin,1956);James Cahill,Chinese Painting(Cleveland,1960;reissued in paperback,New York,1977),是該主題最好的介紹;Feng Yu-lan,A History of Chinese Philosopy,tr.Derk Bodde,2 vols.(Princeton,1952~1953);和Wing-tsit Chan,A Sourcebook in Chinese Philosophy(Princeton,1963)。Wing-tsit Chan,tr.,Reflections on Things at Hand:The Neo-Confucian Anthology Compiled by Chu His and Lu Tsu-Chien(New York,1967),和Tu Wei-Ming,Neo-Confucian Thought in Action:Wang Yang-mings Youth(Berkeley,1976),論述中華帝國後期居於支配地位的新儒家思想的正反兩面。Historic Relics Unearthed in New China(Peking,1972)和Murals from the Han to the Tang Dynasty(Peking,1974)提供了當代中國考古學家發掘的許多重要文物的彩色照片。Joseph Needham,Science and Civilization in China,Multivolumed(Cambridge,1954~)and T.F.Carter and L.C.Goodrich,The Invention of Printing in China and Its Spread Westward,2nd ed.(New York,1955)是這個主題的最權威著作。中國兩位最著名的歷史學家由以下著作進行了研究:Burton Watson,tr.,Records of the Grand Historians of China,2 vols.(New York,1961)和Homer H.Dubs,ed.and tr.,The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku(Baltimore,1938~1955)。Arthur Waley,tr.,The Poetry and Career of Li Po,701~762 A.D.(London,1951)值得提及。
Donald L.Philippi,tr.,Kojiki(Tokyo,1968)使日本古代重要史料可以得到。Murasaki Shikibu,The Tale of Genji,tr.Arthur Waley(Boston,1935),是平安時代文化的最佳導論。下列幾部著作對研究前現代日本有用:Ivan Morris,The World of the Shining Prince(New York,1964);Jeffrey Mass,Warrior Government in Early Medieval Japan:A Study of the Kamakura Bakufu,Shugo and Jito(New Haven,1974);和Alfrede Bloom,Shinrans Gospel of Pure Grace(Tucson,1965)。
非洲。Roland Oliver and John D.Fage,A Short History of Africa(Penguin,1962)現在是標準著作,但是Philip D.Curtin,African History(Boston,1978)給以前的著作帶來了挑戰。有趣的區域性論述包括:Zo Marsh and G.W.Kingsnorth,An Introduction to the History of East Africa,2nd ed.(Cambridge,1961);John D.Fage, An Introduction to the History of West Africa,2nd ed.(Cambridge,1960);E.W.Bovill,Caravans of the Old Sahara:An Introduction to the History of theWestern Sudan(London,1933);J.Spence Trimingham,A History of Islam in West Africa(London,1962);A.H.M.Jones and Elizabeth Monroe,A History of Abyssinia(Oxford,1935;reissued as A History of Ethiopia,1955);和Nehemia Lebtzion,Ancient Ghana and Mali(New York,1973)。Roland Oliver,ed.,The Cambridge History of Africa,III:from c.1500 to c.1600 (Cambridge,1977)反映了該主題現行學術動態。
美洲。Gorden R.Willey,New World Prehistory,Smithonian Institution Report for 1960(Washington,D.C.,1961)和H.E.Driver,ed.,The Americas on the Eve of Discovery(Englewood Cliffs,N.J.,1964),是較好的介紹美洲印第安人的著作。G.H.S.Bushnell,Peru,rev.ed.(New York,1963);J.Eric S.Thompson,The Rise and Fall of Maya Civilization(Norman,Okla.,1954);G.C.Valliant,The Aztecs of Mexico(Penguin,1950);和Friderich Katz,The Ancient American Civilizations(New York,1972),也非常有用。關於有爭議的哥倫布之前與新大陸的跨太平洋聯繫問題,參見M.W.Smith為美國人類學會的Memoir No.9(1953)撰寫的Asia and North America:Trans-Pacific Contacts, 和Andrew Sharp,Ancient Voyagers in the Pacific(Wellington,N.Z.,1956)。